An academic research reveals that Muslim philanthropy—from obligatory Zakat to community endowments—is not just about donations, but a holistic system of worship, social justice, and communal survival that often goes unseen in mainstream studies.
For centuries, acts of giving within Islamic traditions have been categorized by outsiders as “charity.” But what if that label is too narrow, missing the profound spiritual, social, and economic ecosystem that practices like Zakat, Sadaqah, and Waqf represent? Groundbreaking research from scholars Micah A. Hughes and Shariq A. Siddiqui, synthesized in the journal Religion Compass, argues exactly that. Their work, “From Islamic Charity to Muslim Philanthropy: Definitions Across Disciplines,” reveals a vibrant, complex world of Muslim generosity that challenges Western-centric definitions of philanthropy and offers powerful lessons for community building, social welfare, and ethical economics globally.
The study contends that the academic field of “Muslim Philanthropy” is emerging from the long shadow of “Islamic Charity”—a term often used in colonial-era studies focused on legal texts and institutions like the Waqf (endowment). Today, researchers are blending historical analysis with sociology and anthropology to understand how Muslims live their giving. They are finding that reducing this vast tradition to mere monetary donation or volunteerism overlooks its core as an integrated system of worship, rights, and social cohesion.
Part 1: The Waqf – From Colonial Target to Tool for Justice
The journey begins with the Waqf, a pious endowment where assets are locked in perpetuity to fund religious, educational, or social causes. Early European orientalists and colonial administrators studied the Waqf intensely, often to dismantle and control it, recognizing its power as an economic and social institution beyond state reach. In the 19th century, up to two-thirds of property in the Ottoman Empire was held as Waqf, forming a parallel economy dedicated to the public good.
Today, the Waqf is experiencing a renaissance. Modern Muslim-majority nations and activists are reimagining it as a dynamic tool for social justice and development. In India, the landmark Sachar Committee Report highlighted the potential of half a million Waqf properties to uplift the Muslim community. In Turkey and Indonesia, Waqfs have been transformed into foundations and NGOs, fueling education and welfare projects.
Table 1: The Waqf’s Evolution & Modern Potential
| Era | Primary Role & Perception | Modern Reinterpretation & Impact |
|---|---|---|
| Pre-Colonial / Ottoman | Core socio-economic institution; held vast property for public good (mosques, schools, soup kitchens). | Model for community-owned, sustainable asset management. |
| Colonial Era | Target for dismantling; seen as barrier to state control and private market forces. | Symbol of resistance and communal self-reliance. |
| Early Modern States | Nationalized or heavily regulated; brought under state ministries. | Foundation for modern Islamic NGOs and civil society. |
| 21st Century | “Dead capital” to be revived. | Engine for “productive” philanthropy: funding universities, microfinance, poverty alleviation, and addressing UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). |
Part 2: Zakat & Sadaqah – Worship, Rights, and Redistribution
If the Waqf is the infrastructure, Zakat (the obligatory alms) and Sadaqah (voluntary charity) are the lifeblood of daily Muslim philanthropy. The research emphasizes that Zakat is not merely a tax or charity—it is an act of worship (ibadah) and a right of the poor upon the wealthy. This theological framing creates a divine economy of redistribution that challenges neoliberal logic.
Anthropologists like Amira Mittermaier show that for many Muslims, giving is first and foremost “Giving to God.” This motivation transcends simple altruism or social pressure; it’s a spiritual transaction that purifies wealth and fulfills a divine command. Furthermore, Sadaqah is an expansive concept. A famous hadith counts smiling, forbidding evil, and removing harm from the road as acts of Sadaqah. This radically broadens the idea of philanthropy beyond check-writing to encompass everyday ethics and kindness.
Table 2: The Spectrum of Muslim Giving: Beyond the Donation Box
| Practice | Traditional Definition | Expansive, Lived Understanding (Per Research) |
|---|---|---|
| Zakat (Obligatory) | 2.5% annual wealth tax for eight prescribed categories (poor, needy, etc.). | 1. An Act of Worship: Purification of wealth and soul. 2. A Right of the Poor: Creates a theological claim, reducing stigma in receiving. 3. Social Redistribution: A religious mechanism for wealth transfer and communal integration. |
| Sadaqah (Voluntary) | Voluntary charity, often monetary. | 1. Ethical Currency: Includes good deeds, kind words, a smile. 2. Preventive Philanthropy: Abstaining from harm is itself Sadaqah. 3. Community Care: Fosters daily, relational bonds beyond financial transaction. |
| Waqf (Endowment) | Permanent dedication of property for religious/charitable cause. | 1. Intergenerational Justice: A sustainable asset for future generations. 2. Community Sovereignty: Creates independent, community-controlled resources. 3. Adaptive Institution: Can fund modern needs (STEM education, climate action, etc.). |
Part 3: The American Muslim Experience – Giving Differently Under Surveillance
The research provides crucial insights into the unique landscape of American Muslim philanthropy. Historically rooted in African American Muslim mutual-aid societies—like the practice of enslaved women making “saraka cakes”—this giving has evolved into a robust network of mosques, schools, and relief organizations.
However, studies from the Muslim Philanthropy Initiative (MPI) reveal a critical insight: American Muslims give more on average than the general public, but they give differently. While over 50% of non-Muslim giving goes to houses of worship, only about 27% of Muslim giving does. Muslims channel more funds into human services, international relief, and social justice causes—areas often categorized outside “religious giving” in reports like Giving USA.
This pattern is shaped by theology (Zakat mandates support for the poor and needy) and a harsh reality: heightened securitization post-9/11. The “War on Terror” created a climate of “risk-based philanthropy,” where Muslim donors and nonprofits operate under fear of surveillance, shaping how they give and report their work.
Conclusion: Redefining Philanthropy Itself
The work of Hughes and Siddiqui is a clarion call to expand our understanding of philanthropy itself. The dominant definition—”voluntary action for the public good”—fails to capture obligatory acts like Zakat (which is a duty, not voluntary) and the holistic nature of Sadaqah (which includes non-actions and ethical behavior).
Muslim philanthropy, as this research shows, is a rich discursive tradition. It is worship and welfare, obligation and compassion, financial transfer and social bonding. It challenges us to see philanthropy not just as a sector, but as a worldview—one that can inspire more inclusive, spiritually-grounded, and socially-just models of giving for all.
As the study concludes, the future lies in scholarly frames that acknowledge “the specificities of Muslim practice and values” while engaging the shared civic space of the modern world. In doing so, we don’t just learn about Muslim philanthropy; we enrich our very concept of what it means to give.
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