When future imams and Islamic teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina study their faith, they encounter powerful teachings about justice. The Qur’an commands fairness for all people. The Prophet Muhammad warned that a believer cannot sleep comfortably while their neighbour goes hungry. Classical scholars wrote extensively about protecting the weak and marginalised.
Yet a new study reveals a troubling gap: while social justice sits at the heart of Islamic theology, it remains largely absent from how future religious educators are actually trained to teach it.
The research, published in the journal Religions, examines the higher education syllabus for Islamic religious education teachers and imams in Bosnia and Herzegovina . Conducted by Edina Vejo and Eldar Ćerim from the University of Zenica, the study uses a two-phase qualitative design combining expert analysis with documentary syllabus review .
The Normative Foundation of Social Justice in Islam
Islamic sources consistently affirm social justice as a foundational principle. The Qur’an declares: “Indeed, Allah commands justice and excellence” (16:90) . This is not merely abstract advice but a binding legal and moral obligation.
Key aspects of social justice in Islamic tradition include:
- Economic justice through zakat and sadaqah as mechanisms for mitigating social differences, prohibition of interest, and property rights that carry community responsibility
- Rights of marginalised groups including orphans, women, slaves, and foreigners in the context of their time
- Equality before the law where Islamic law does not associate justice with status, ethnic affiliation, or wealth
- Social and political responsibility where leaders serve the people, protect rights, and prevent injustice because they are accountable before God and people
- Rule by consultation (shura) ensuring community participation in decision-making
These principles are deeply embedded in Islamic intellectual tradition. Classical scholars like al-Māwardī emphasised that the purpose of Islamic governance and education is the preservation of justice . Contemporary thinkers such as Fazlur Rahman and Tariq Ramadan insist on hermeneutical approaches that connect timeless principles with contemporary challenges .
The Research: How Social Justice Is Taught
The study analysed the official syllabus of the undergraduate programme in Islamic Religious Studies at a higher education institution in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This programme qualifies graduates to become teachers of Islamic religious education in primary and secondary schools, as well as imams in mosque communities.
The researchers developed thematic indicators of social justice through an open-ended qualitative expert survey with three senior academics: a professor of Religious Pedagogy, a professor of Islamic Sciences, and a professor of Islamic Religious Studies . These indicators were then used to systematically analyse the syllabus using Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives, examining cognitive depth across six levels: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Bloom’s Taxonomy and Social Justice in Islamic Teacher Education
| Cognitive Level | What Students Should Do | How It Appears in Syllabus | Assessment |
|---|---|---|---|
| Knowledge | Recognise, list, name, define | Strong emphasis on key concepts (ʿadl, qisṭ), Qur’anic verses, hadiths, classical scholars | Strong presence |
| Comprehension | Describe, explain, interpret | Understanding of justice as norm and competence; connection between knowledge and action | Strong presence |
| Application | Use, apply, solve | Emerging sensitivity to social inclusion, tolerance, moral conduct | Fragmented presence |
| Analysis | Analyse, contrast, examine | Potential for critical engagement with structures, power, marginalisation | Uneven presence |
| Synthesis | Create, combine, modify | Limited explicit development of justice-oriented pedagogical models | Weak presence |
| Evaluation | Criticise, judge, conclude | Limited explicit ethical judgement of social phenomena | Weak presence |
What the Syllabus Reveals
Knowledge Level: Strong on Texts, Light on Social Context
At the basic knowledge level, the syllabus demonstrates a strong emphasis on textual familiarity. Students are expected to learn key concepts like ‘adl (justice) and qisṭ (equity), reproduce Qur’anic verses and hadiths, and recognise classical and contemporary scholars . This reflects traditional models of religious education centred on transmission and interpretation.
However, this cognitive engagement does not necessarily translate into critical reflection on contemporary social realities. The syllabus focuses heavily on what Islamic sources say about justice without always connecting these teachings to issues facing Bosnia today: poverty, discrimination, gender inequality, or the legacy of war .
Comprehension Level: Understanding Meaning, Not Application
At the comprehension level, students are expected to interpret the meaning behind normative prescriptions. They learn that social justice is understood as both a theologically binding norm and a pedagogically cultivated competence . They connect the concept of ‘ilm (knowledge) with ‘amal (action), understanding that knowledge without action is incomplete.
Yet this understanding remains largely abstract. Students can explain what justice means in Islamic tradition, but the syllabus provides limited guidance on how to apply these principles in concrete situations—how to address poverty in the classroom, how to discuss discrimination with students, or how to respond to injustice in their communities.
Application Level: Emerging Sensitivity, Fragmented Practice
At the application level, the syllabus shows promising signs of pedagogical sensitivity. Some course descriptions mention addressing challenges on the path toward social inclusion, emphasising tolerance toward those who are different, and guiding students toward moral conduct .
One course explicitly covers “familiarity with EU documents and guidelines on social inclusion” and provides “insight into the state of social inclusion in Bosnia and Herzegovina” . Another course, “Islam and New Religious Movements,” emphasises tolerance toward religious diversity.
These elements suggest awareness of the need to connect religious knowledge with lived social realities. However, the researchers note that such applications remain “fragmented rather than systematically embedded within a justice-oriented pedagogical framework” .
Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation: Critical Thinking Remains Uneven
At higher cognitive levels, the syllabus reveals potential for critical engagement but also significant limitations. Some courses enable analytical reflection on issues like social exclusion, historical injustice, and power structures. For example, the course “Islamic Philosophy” includes “comparison and analysis of different value systems; respect for diversity and multiculturalism; drawing independent conclusions” .
The course “Contemporary Fiqh Issues” addresses “the intentions of Sharīʿah rulings concerning contemporary Fiqh topics, the essence and form of these processes, and their scholarly interpretation” . The syllabus also mentions “sensitivity in addressing contemporary pedagogical questions from an Islamic perspective” .
However, this potential is unevenly realised. The syllabus as a whole does not consistently frame social justice as a structural or systemic issue. As the researchers conclude, the development of students as active agents of social transformation remains “rather questionable” .
The Gap: Theological Norm vs. Pedagogical Practice
The study’s central finding reveals a significant discrepancy. Social justice is “deeply embedded in the theological and disciplinary foundations of the syllabus” through references to Qur’anic ethics, hadith traditions, and broader Islamic intellectual heritage. Yet it is “rarely explicitly formulated as a learning outcome or pedagogical objective” .
In other words, justice appears as a general assumption about what good Islamic education should include rather than as a specific competence that students should develop. This pattern reflects broader challenges in Islamic education globally. Studies from Indonesia, Kenya, and other contexts show that Islamic education often remains “normatively rich but pedagogically underarticulated” .
Why Does This Gap Exist?
The researchers identify several reasons for this pedagogical gap:
1. Text-Centred Approaches: Islamic education has historically focused on transmitting texts rather than developing critical thinking about contemporary applications. While this preserves tradition, it may limit engagement with current social realities.
2. Sensitivity of Certain Topics: Some issues related to social justice—gender equality, power structures, historical injustice—may be treated as “sensitive” or avoided entirely. As the researchers note, “in some educational institutions, themes reinforcing traditional order are emphasised while sensitive issues are avoided” .
3. Conservative Interpretations: The study suggests that patriarchal norms and structures can be internalised through education, reinforcing inequalities. The curriculum may present interpretations “apologetically, as beyond critical questioning” rather than encouraging students to engage with diverse perspectives.
4. Limited Interdisciplinarity: The research highlights the need for interdisciplinary approaches connecting Islamic theology with sociology, political science, social pedagogy, and psychology. Without such integration, justice remains an abstract theological concept rather than a practical tool for understanding and changing society.
5. Fear of Critical Reflection: The researchers note that “upbringing and education about social justice requires analytical insight into inequality, power structures, and historical injustice, which is sometimes treated as a heretical questioning of traditional authority” .
The Consequences of This Gap
When social justice remains implicit rather than explicit, several problems emerge:
For Future Teachers: New teachers may understand that justice is important in theory but lack practical tools to address injustice in their classrooms and communities. They may perpetuate existing inequalities rather than challenging them.
For Students: Pupils in Islamic religious education classes may learn about justice as a historical or abstract concept without connecting it to their lived experiences of poverty, discrimination, or exclusion.
For Society: Islamic education misses an opportunity to contribute to social cohesion, peacebuilding, and the development of active, engaged citizens committed to justice.
For Credibility: As the researchers warn, “if social injustice is ignored, we will have an education that does not address real problems and therefore lacks credibility” .
Key Findings and Recommendations
| Finding | Evidence | Recommendation |
|---|---|---|
| Social justice is theologically central but pedagogically implicit | Syllabus references justice throughout but rarely as explicit learning outcome | Explicitly formulate social justice as learning outcome and pedagogical competence |
| Text-based approaches dominate | Strong emphasis on textual familiarity at knowledge level | Develop contextual hermeneutics connecting texts to contemporary challenges |
| Critical reflection is limited | Higher cognitive levels show uneven presence of justice themes | Create safe spaces for free discussion; avoid predefined “model solutions” |
| Sensitivity exists but lacks systematic framework | Individual courses mention inclusion, tolerance, and moral conduct | Develop coherent framework integrating justice themes across all courses |
| Interdisciplinarity is limited | Limited engagement with sociology, political science, social pedagogy | Integrate multiple disciplines in analysing social justice issues |
| Teacher role modelling is crucial | Experts emphasise credibility of transmitting norms | Ensure teachers embody justice in practice |
| Patriarchal norms may be reinforced | Conservative interpretations may limit engagement with sensitive issues | Encourage hermeneutical openness and diverse interpretations |
What Needs to Change: Recommendations
The study offers several directions for reform:
1. Explicit Articulation: Social justice must be clearly formulated as a learning outcome, pedagogical competence, and educational objective. This means moving from implicit sensitivity to explicit integration across all courses.
2. Contextual Interpretation: Rather than presenting Islamic sources as abstract texts, teachers should connect Qur’anic principles with contemporary challenges in Bosnia and Herzegovina and beyond. This requires developing “contextual hermeneutics” that move from the historical specificity of revelation to universal principles and back to new circumstances.
3. Critical Reflection: Students should be encouraged to critically examine power structures, historical injustice, and systemic inequalities. This requires creating safe spaces for free discussion and ensuring that the classroom is not limited by “predefined model solutions” that discourage independent thinking.
4. Interdisciplinary Integration: Islamic theological education should engage with sociology, political science, social pedagogy, and other disciplines to understand and address social justice issues comprehensively.
5. Teacher Role Modelling: Future teachers should embody the justice they teach. As the study emphasises, “the credibility of transmitting norms and ethical sensitivity depends on whether teachers themselves embody justice” .
6. Practical Engagement: Students should participate in community projects, humanitarian initiatives, and other activities that allow them to practice justice rather than simply study it.
7. Hermeneutical Openness: The study calls for “pluralistic hermeneutics that legitimises the adoption of different positions and opens space for dialogue” . This requires understanding tradition not as a fixed corpus but as “historical and spiritual space that connects text and reader” .
The Bosnian Context and Wider Implications
Bosnia and Herzegovina provides a particularly significant context for this research. The country experienced devastating war in the 1990s and continues to face challenges of ethnic division, economic inequality, and social exclusion. Islamic education in this context has a vital role to play in promoting reconciliation, justice, and social cohesion.
The findings, however, have relevance far beyond Bosnia. Across Europe and the Muslim world, Islamic education faces similar tensions between preserving tradition and engaging with contemporary challenges. The study contributes to broader conversations about the future of Islamic education in contexts of globalisation, pluralism, and social change.
The researchers draw on the work of reformist thinkers like Hasan Hanafi, who called for “an Islam of social justice” in which the Muslim subject is liberated from various internal and external hegemonies . Hanafi maintained that “the inherited structure of Islamic theology reflects the general structure of power in Muslim societies, supporting the powerful over the weak, the elites over the masses. A new theology must be anthropocentric, engaged, and transformative” .
Conclusion: Toward a Theology of Engagement
The study concludes with a call for reform. Islamic theological education in Bosnia and Herzegovina possesses strong normative foundations and emerging pedagogical sensitivity. It demonstrates all the resources necessary for transformation. What is required is more explicit integration of these elements into a coherent framework that positions social justice as a central educational objective.
As the researchers write, social justice should be a “bridge toward engaged, critical, and contextualised theological education.” This requires understanding tradition as a “corpus of inherited texts that must be interpreted in accordance with the needs of the present” .
The gap between faith and action is not unique to Islamic education. All traditions struggle to translate their highest ideals into everyday practice. But the study suggests that Islamic education can do better—and must do better—if it is to prepare future imams and teachers to lead their communities toward justice in a complex and changing world.
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