Research Challenges Islamic Studies to Take Non-Muslim Productions of Islam Seriously
A provocative new article from Lund University scholars Jesper Petersen and Anders Ackfeldt has introduced a revolutionary concept to the field of Islamic studies: “non-Muslim Islam.” The researchers argue that Islamic studies has long operated with a hidden hierarchy that privileges what Muslims say about Islam while ignoring the equally important ways that non-Muslims produce Islamic meaning in Western societies.
This theoretical intervention arrives at a time when debates about Islam dominate political discourse across Europe and North America. From former President Barack Obama’s Cairo speech to European far-right politicians quoting the Quran, non-Muslims are constantly defining what Islam means. Yet Islamic studies has largely treated these productions as distortions or propaganda rather than as legitimate objects of scholarly inquiry.
What Is “Non-Muslim Islam”? Understanding the Concept
The authors define non-Muslim Islam as any production of Islamic meaning that originates from people who do not identify as Muslims. This includes politicians who interpret the Quran, filmmakers who create Muslim characters, authors who write about Islamic themes, former Muslims who critique the religion, and even academics who engage in theological arguments.
Table 1: Who Produces Non-Muslim Islam? (Simple Overview)
| Type of Producer | Examples | How They Produce Islam |
|---|---|---|
| Politicians | Barack Obama, Geert Wilders | Interpret Quran to support political agendas |
| Far-right activists | Martin Henriksen (Danish People’s Party) | Quote scripture to argue Islam is violent |
| Academics | Thomas Hoffmann (Quran scholar) | Debate Muslim interpretations of scripture |
| Artists | Rakim Allah (hip-hop artist) | Use Islamic language and symbols in music |
| Authors | Michel Houellebecq (novelist) | Write fiction with Muslim characters |
| Conspiracy theorists | Bat Ye’or | Claim Islam is a political plot |
Simple Explanation: Non-Muslim Islam is everywhere in Western societies. When politicians, artists, or academics talk about Islam, they are creating meaning about the religion—even if they don’t believe in it themselves.
Why This Matters: Three Key Arguments
The researchers present three compelling reasons why Islamic studies must take non-Muslim Islam seriously:
1. Non-Muslim Islam Is Everywhere and Important
Islam plays a crucial role in Western public discourse even among non-Muslims. As Edward Curtis notes, “the very definition of freedom, goodness, beauty, and justice invoke Islam and Muslims in one way or another.” When politicians argue about immigration, when authors write novels, when filmmakers create stories—Islam is constantly being defined.
The Obama Example:
In his 2009 Cairo speech, President Obama quoted Quran 5:32 to argue that Islam is a religion of peace and that al-Qaida and the Taliban were heretics. He constructed a “true” Islam that aligned with US foreign policy interests.
The Henriksen Example:
In contrast, Danish politician Martin Henriksen used the exact same verse to argue the opposite. He claimed Quran 5:32 applies only to Jews, not Muslims, and therefore cannot be used to prove Islam is peaceful. He even suggested that Muslims who believe Islam is peaceful “do not know their own scripture.”
What This Shows: Two non-Muslim politicians reached opposite conclusions about Islam using the same verse. Both claimed authority to interpret the Quran. Both defined what counts as “true” Islam. Both had significant influence on public opinion.
Table 2: How Two Politicians Interpreted the Same Quran Verse
| Politician | Quran 5:32 Interpretation | Political Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Barack Obama (USA) | “Whoever kills an innocent … has killed all mankind” → Islam is peaceful | Build partnership with Muslim world |
| Martin Henriksen (Denmark) | This verse applies to Jews, not Muslims → Islam is NOT peaceful | Justify restricting Muslim immigration |
Simple Explanation: The same Quran verse produced two completely different meanings. Both were produced by non-Muslims with opposing political agendas.
2. Non-Muslim Islam Shapes How Muslims Understand Their Faith
The researchers argue convincingly that non-Muslim Islam significantly impacts Muslim Islam. When Muslims are constantly confronted with stereotypes, prejudices, and negative interpretations of their faith, many respond by studying Islam more deeply.
Research from Scandinavia shows:
- Young Muslims often begin exploring Islam when confronted with prejudice
- Muslim identity formation is frequently a response to non-Muslim Islam
- Muslim institutions often focus on defending against Islamophobia
- Even non-practicing Muslims find knowledge about Islam important for emancipatory reasons
The authors note that Muslims often struggle to self-define because of asymmetrical power relations. Non-Muslim majorities often have more resources, media access, and political power to define what Islam means. This creates a situation where Muslims are constantly defending their religion against interpretations they don’t accept.
The Hip-Hop Connection:
The researchers highlight the fascinating case of Rakim Allah, a hip-hop artist and member of the Nation of Gods and Earths (NGE). Although NGE uses Islamic language and symbols, they do not consider themselves Muslims. When Rakim was named the “most influential Muslim MC” by VladTV, he clarified: “No, we are not Muslims, but we study the same lessons.”
Despite not being Muslim, Rakim has had enormous influence on Muslim hip-hop artists. His music, language, and style have shaped how Muslims produce their own Islamic identity in popular culture.
3. Insisting on an Etic Research Epistemology
The third argument is about research methodology. The authors argue that privileging Muslim interpretations of Islam over non-Muslim interpretations is a methodological choice, not an empirical observation.
When researchers assume that only Muslims produce “real” Islam, they introduce what Jacques Derrida called a “dangerous supplement”—an arbitrary hierarchy that says more about the observer’s values than the phenomena observed.
The problem with the insider/outsider metaphor:
- It assumes there is a single “inside” where Islam is produced
- It assumes the inside is located among Muslims
- It overlooks that non-Muslims also produce Islam from their own “inside” (e.g., inside a political party, an academic discipline, a cultural movement)
Why this matters:
There is no epistemological reason to treat Muslim and non-Muslim productions of Islam differently. Both are equally “real” as social phenomena. Both have real effects on society. Both deserve scholarly attention.
Where Is Islam? A New Methodological Approach
Instead of asking “What is Islam?” (a theological question), the authors suggest asking “Where is Islam?” (a research question). This shifts the focus from defining Islam to identifying it in human communication.
The Social Semiotics Approach:
Islam is only available to researchers through human communication—both verbal and non-verbal (gestures, images, sounds, etc.). The authors propose:
“Any communication humans intend to encode as Islamic produces Islam irrespective of the identity of the encoder, and anything that is decoded as Islamic produces Islam irrespective of the intentions of the encoder.”
What This Means:
- If someone intends to produce Islamic meaning, they are producing Islam—regardless of their religious identity
- If an audience interprets something as Islamic, that also produces Islam—regardless of the creator’s intentions
**Example 1: A Turkish rock band wearing “I am Satan” t-shirts in Saudi Arabia. The audience decoded this as blasphemy against Islam, thus producing a specific Islamic meaning—even though the band’s intention was probably just provocation.
**Example 2: A non-Muslim politician quoting the Quran. He intends to produce an Islamic meaning (interpretation of scripture), and his audience may decode it as Islamic—or reject it as manipulation. Either way, Islam has been produced in public discourse.
This approach allows researchers to identify Islam wherever it appears in human communication, without getting trapped in theological debates about who is a “real” Muslim.
The Limits of Orientalism Critique
The researchers offer a nuanced critique of Edward Said’s Orientalism framework. While Said’s work was enormously important for exposing biases and power asymmetries in Western scholarship about the Middle East, it also created new problems.
The Problem:
Orientalist critique tends to label all non-Muslim productions of Islam as distortions, propaganda, or Othering. This means scholars often stop analyzing once they’ve identified something as “Orientalist.”
The Solution:
Instead of ending the analysis at “This is Orientalist,” scholars should begin there. Non-Muslim productions of Islam are social phenomena that deserve serious investigation. We need to understand:
- How they work
- What effects they have
- Who they appeal to
- Why they are produced
A key insight:
Yusuf al-Qaradawi’s Muslim Islam is not more “authentic” than Geert Wilders’ non-Muslim Islam. They are simply different productions that appeal to different audiences. Good scholarship investigates both.
The Ethics of Studying Non-Muslim Islam
The authors address potential ethical concerns about their proposal. Some may worry that studying non-Muslim Islam legitimizes prejudice or hate speech.
The Response:
- Muslims are empowered, not undermined. Distinguishing between Muslim and non-Muslim Islam actually gives back to Muslims the right to define Muslim Islam, while restricting non-Muslims to defining non-Muslim Islam.
- Labeling is not analysis. Calling someone a “bigot” or “Islamophobe” is political labeling, not scholarly analysis. Good scholarship investigates and explains rather than reacts.
- Curiosity-driven research. Even if some non-Muslims produce Islam in ways that offend, the scholarly duty is to understand why and how. What makes these interpretations compelling to their audiences?
- Research epistemologies differ from theology. Scholars who venture into theological debates are abandoning research epistemology. The proper response is to study those debates as social phenomena.
What This Means for Islamic Studies
The re-conceptualization of Islam as produced by both Muslims and non-Muslims has significant implications:
For Textbooks:
Currently, textbooks on Islam present the religion primarily through Muslim sources. The authors argue that non-Muslim productions of Islam deserve standalone chapters.
For University Courses:
Islamic studies programs should include courses on non-Muslim Islam alongside courses on Muslim Islam.
For Research:
The field should expand its empirical scope to include non-Muslim productions of Islam, which have been largely ignored.
For Political Science and Media Studies:
Non-Muslim Islam is a significant variable that these fields have not adequately considered. Politicians’ and journalists’ productions of Islam have real effects on society.
For The Field as a Whole:
Islamic studies risks irrelevance if it ignores one of the most potent and ubiquitous productions of Islam in contemporary Western societies.
Conclusion: Taking Non-Muslim Islam Seriously
Petersen and Ackfeldt have issued a challenge to the field of Islamic studies: stop privileging Muslim productions of Islam as more “authentic” than non-Muslim productions. Both are social phenomena that deserve scholarly attention.
Their argument rests on three pillars:
- Non-Muslim Islam is important in its own right—it shapes public discourse, politics, and culture
- Non-Muslim Islam affects Muslim Islam—Muslims often define themselves in response to non-Muslim productions
- There is no epistemological reason to privilege one over the other—it is a methodological choice, not an empirical observation
The proposed methodological approach—using social semiotics to identify Islam wherever it appears in human communication—allows researchers to avoid getting trapped in theological debates about “real” Islam.
The authors argue that scholars should not venture into theological debates with politicians or activists. Instead, they should study how these figures produce Islam and why their productions resonate with certain audiences.
This article represents a significant theoretical intervention that will likely generate debate within Islamic studies. Whether scholars embrace or reject the concept of non-Muslim Islam, the questions Petersen and Ackfeldt raise cannot be ignored: What does it mean to study Islam in Western societies where non-Muslims are constantly producing Islamic meaning? And why has the field been so slow to take this phenomenon seriously?
