Summary
A new study examines how four contemporary European mosques use ornamentation to express Islamic identity while embracing modern architectural trends. Researchers Hanalysed the Cologne Central Mosque in Germany, Cambridge Central Mosque in the United Kingdom, Al-Andalus Mosque in Spain, and Rijeka Mosque in Croatia. Their goal was to understand how cultural, aesthetic and functional factors shape ornamentation, and what happens to Islamic identity when minimalism takes over.
The findings reveal a spectrum. Al-Andalus Mosque sits at one end, preserving Andalusian heritage through horseshoe arches, zellij tilework and floral motifs. Cologne and Cambridge occupy the middle ground, blending Ottoman, Persian and local influences with contemporary materials like grid-patterned glass and timber latticework. Rijeka Mosque stands at the opposite end, embracing stark minimalism with sculptural domes and panoramic windows but very little traditional ornamentation.
According to the authors, this minimalist approach risks diluting the cultural richness that ornamentation traditionally provides. Mosques serve not only as places of worship but as cultural landmarks that foster belonging for diaspora communities. When decorative elements disappear, that sense of connection can weaken. The study concludes that architects should thoughtfully integrate traditional elements with modern functionality, avoiding excessive simplification while still embracing innovation. Ornamentation, the authors argue, is not mere decoration. It is a bridge between sacred tradition and contemporary life.
A Continent of New Mosques
Across Europe, Muslim communities have built hundreds of mosques over the past three decades. These buildings serve growing populations, many of them descended from post-war immigrants or more recent refugees. Yet each new mosque faces a design dilemma. Should it replicate the architectural traditions of the Muslim world, or should it speak the language of contemporary European architecture?
This question sits at the heart of the new study from the University of Bahrain. Haifa Ebrahim Al Khalifa and May Walid Lafi chose four mosques from different corners of Europe to examine how architects have answered it. Cologne represents Central Europe and a large Turkish community. Cambridge represents Northern Europe and environmental innovation. Al-Andalus in Málaga represents Southern Europe and the legacy of Muslim Spain. Rijeka represents Eastern Europe and a Bosniak community shaped by socialist-era modernism.
Each mosque tells a different story about how Islamic identity gets expressed through design. Together, they reveal both the possibilities and the risks of building sacred spaces in secular, multicultural societies.
Why Ornamentation Matters
Islamic ornamentation has deep roots. Geometric patterns, arabesques, calligraphy and vegetal motifs have decorated mosques for centuries. These elements are not merely decorative. They reflect religious principles of harmony, balance and unity. They connect worshippers to a shared cultural heritage that spans continents and generations.
The study’s literature review traces how ornamentation varies across Islamic cultures. Persian mosques feature vibrant tilework and elaborate calligraphy. Andalusian mosques showcase stucco reliefs and horseshoe arches. Mughal architecture in South Asia uses marble inlays and pietra dura techniques. Southeast Asian mosques incorporate floral motifs and delicate woodwork. Each tradition reflects local materials, craft practices and aesthetic preferences.
For Muslim communities in Europe, ornamentation carries additional weight. Mosques are not just prayer halls. They are cultural landmarks that help diaspora communities maintain connections to their heritage. When ornamentation disappears, that connection can weaken, leaving worshippers feeling detached from the traditions their mosque is meant to represent.
Four Mosques, Four Approaches
The researchers analysed each mosque using photographs of four key elements: the mihrab, the main prayer hall, the exterior facade and the dome. They assessed each element across five dimensions: cultural, aesthetic, functional, the influence of modern styles and the impact on Islamic identity.
| Mosque | Location | Architectural Approach | Islamic Identity |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cologne Central | Germany | Ottoman-inspired with modern glass | Strong balance of tradition and modernity |
| Cambridge Central | UK | Eco-friendly with timber latticework | Innovation with retained cultural depth |
| Al-Andalus | Spain | Andalusian heritage preserved | Strongest traditional identity |
| Rijeka | Croatia | Stark minimalism, sculptural forms | Weakest connection to tradition |
Cologne Central Mosque blends Ottoman, Mamluk and Persian influences. Its dome features an eight-pointed star pattern that evokes Islamic art while using contemporary materials. Grid-patterned glasswork and calligraphic reliefs reinterpret classical motifs for a modern audience. According to the authors, this mosque achieves a seamless fusion of old and new, strengthening Islamic identity without sacrificing contemporary relevance.
Cambridge Central Mosque takes a different path. Known as the “Eco-Mosque,” it combines Islamic geometry with British craftsmanship. Kufic brickwork on the facade improves thermal performance while educating visitors about calligraphy. Timber latticework creates net-like patterns on the ceiling, echoing Islamic geometric principles while supporting the roof structure. Calligraphic panels use contemporary typography, which the authors note partly reduces cultural depth but still conveys sacred meaning.
When Minimalism Erases Identity
Al-Andalus Mosque in Málaga offers the strongest example of traditional preservation. Horseshoe arches recall the glory of Muslim Spain. Zellij tilework covers the walls with intricate geometry. Arabic calligraphy adorns entrances and interiors. Floral and vegetal motifs symbolise paradise. Ribbed domes demonstrate the engineering sophistication of Andalusian architects. According to the study, this mosque maintains the clearest connection to Islamic heritage among the four cases.
Rijeka Mosque presents the sharpest contrast. Located in a Croatian port city with a significant Bosniak community, it embraces minimalism with sculptural interlocking domes, a spiral minaret and panoramic windows. The interior is almost entirely devoid of traditional ornamentation. Clean lines and natural light replace geometric patterns and calligraphy. The mihrab features a simple golden panel rather than intricate tilework.
The authors are cautious but clear in their assessment. While minimalism offers clarity, efficiency and sustainability, excessive simplification risks diminishing the cultural richness that ornamentation provides. Rijeka Mosque, they write, is “visually and culturally less tied to traditional Islamic architecture” than the other cases. The few ornamental elements it retains highlight how much has been stripped away.
The Tension Between Function and Symbolism
Modern architecture brings real benefits. Sustainable materials reduce environmental impact. Energy-efficient designs lower operating costs. Panoramic windows maximise natural light. Perforated domes create dynamic patterns of light and shadow. These innovations enhance functionality and make mosques more appealing to contemporary audiences.
Yet functionality can come at a cost. The study notes that 14 percent of modern mosques experience structural obstructions, 23 percent see reductions in symbolic elements and 43 percent adopt simpler designs with fewer decorative features. When ornamentation disappears, mosques may lose their ability to convey sacred meaning and cultural continuity.
The authors argue for balance. Minimalism can be applied thoughtfully in certain areas, but key elements like the mihrab and dome should retain meaningful ornamentation. The exterior facade holds particular significance in European contexts, serving as a visible symbol of Islamic presence in the public realm. Incorporating ornamentation there can strengthen belonging for Muslim communities living as minorities.
| Dimension | What It Covers | Why It Matters |
|---|---|---|
| Cultural | Influences from Ottoman, Andalusian, Persian traditions | Maintains heritage connections |
| Aesthetic | Visual qualities, patterns, calligraphy | Creates spiritual ambiance |
| Functional | Acoustics, lighting, energy efficiency | Enhances usability and sustainability |
| Modern influence | Minimalism, new materials, technology | Shapes contemporary expression |
| Identity impact | How ornamentation affects belonging | Determines cultural continuity |
What This Means for Future Mosques
The study offers practical recommendations for architects and designers. Traditional Islamic elements should be integrated thoughtfully into contemporary forms. New materials and techniques should reinterpret tradition rather than replace it. Lighting can cast intricate patterned shadows. Golden-toned steel can evoke traditional motifs. Minimalism should be balanced with meaningful ornamentation in sacred spaces.
Beyond Europe, the findings resonate wherever Muslim minorities build mosques. The tension between tradition and modernity is not unique to the continent. Communities in North America, Australia and parts of Asia face similar choices. The study’s framework offers a way to evaluate those choices systematically.
The authors acknowledge limitations. Only four mosques were examined due to time constraints. Future research could expand geographically, incorporate user perspectives and examine emerging technologies. But the core message remains clear. Ornamentation is not decoration for its own sake. It is a bridge linking sacred traditions with contemporary life. Striking the right balance preserves Islamic identity while embracing the future.
