A study from Germany’s Federal Office for Migration and Refugees examines how people from Muslim-majority backgrounds experience discrimination in daily life, at school, in job searches, and on the housing market — and finds that origin matters more than religion
A Nation of Diversity, A Reality of Exclusion
Germany has become a plural society. More than a quarter of its residents were either born abroad or have a parent who was. Among them, between 6% and 7% of the population is Muslim, according to estimates from the Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF).
Yet diversity brings challenges. Ensuring equal participation regardless of origin or religion remains one of the country’s biggest social tasks. A 2023 research report by Anja Stichs and Katrin Pfündel examines this challenge through a simple but powerful question: Do people from Muslim-majority countries feel discriminated against in Germany?
The study analyses data from “Muslimisches Leben in Deutschland 2020” (MLD 2020), a representative survey of 4,538 people from 23 Muslim-majority countries, plus 582 people without a migration background. It covers everyday discrimination, grading in school, job searches, and housing searches.
The findings are nuanced. Most respondents do not feel regularly discriminated against. Yet a significant minority does — and their experiences reveal patterns that deserve attention.
Measuring Everyday Discrimination
The study uses the Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS), developed by Harvard researchers. It asks respondents how often they experience nine situations: being treated with less courtesy, less respect, receiving poorer service, being insulted, being threatened, and others.
A key finding: 67% of people from Muslim-majority countries say they have not experienced any of these situations regularly. This suggests most daily interactions are open and respectful.
However, 33% report experiencing at least one situation several times a month or more. For people without a migration background, the figure is 20%. This gap matters. Repeated experiences of subtle discrimination can harm well-being, damage self-esteem, and foster withdrawal from society.
The most common experiences involve subtle slights. About 18% feel others act as if they are better. Similar shares report being treated with less courtesy or less respect. Open hostility — insults or threats — is less common but still present.
Perceived Discrimination by Life Area
| Life Area | People with Migration Background | People without Migration Background |
|---|---|---|
| Everyday discrimination (at least one situation monthly) | 33% | 20% |
| Unfair grading in school | 38% | 13% |
| Disadvantage in job search | 38% | 10% |
| Disadvantage in housing search | 48% | 15% |
| Disadvantage in at least one of three areas | 48% | 18% |
| Disadvantage in all three areas | 7% | — |
Perceived Discrimination by Origin Region
| Origin Region | Everyday Discrimination | Unfair Grading | Job Search | Housing Search |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Turkey | Highest | 43% | 44% | 54% |
| Middle East (non-Arabic) | High | 33% | 39% | 54% |
| Arabic-speaking countries | Medium | 29% | 31% | 45% |
| Southeast Europe | Lowest | 28% | 26% | 36% |
Religion Matters Less Than Origin
A striking finding challenges assumptions. When researchers control for other factors, religious affiliation does not significantly predict perceived discrimination. Muslims, Christians, and people with no religion from Muslim-majority countries report similar levels of discrimination.
What matters more is origin region. People from Turkey, the Middle East, and Arabic-speaking countries report more discrimination than those from Southeast Europe. This pattern holds across all life areas.
Why? The study suggests that people from Muslim-majority countries are often “read” as Muslim regardless of their actual religion. Appearance, accent, name, or phenotype triggers the same reactions. Christians from these countries also report discrimination — likely because they are perceived as Muslim too.
This finding has important implications. Anti-Muslim prejudice affects not only Muslims but anyone perceived as Muslim. The boundary is drawn by perception, not by faith.
The Weight of Everyday Slights
Everyday discrimination is often subtle. A rude comment. A dismissive gesture. Poorer service at a restaurant. These experiences may seem minor individually, but they accumulate.
The study cites research linking repeated discrimination to high blood pressure, anxiety, and depression. Subtle forms are particularly damaging because they are hard to prove. Victims may blame themselves or feel helpless.
For people with migration backgrounds, everyday discrimination also tests their sense of belonging. Those who try to integrate may feel their efforts go unrecognized. This can lead to withdrawal into ethnic communities and reduced identification with German society.
A paradox emerges: people born in Germany report more discrimination than recent arrivals. Those who are highly integrated — with good German, German citizenship, and German-born — feel more discriminated against than newcomers. Researchers call this the “integration paradox.” Higher expectations of equal treatment make discrimination more painful when it occurs.
School: Where Inequality Begins
Schools should be safe spaces for development. Yet the study finds that 38% of people from Muslim-majority countries who attended school in Germany feel they were graded unfairly compared to German-origin peers. Among people without a migration background, only 13% feel this way.
Field experiments confirm these perceptions. One study found that teachers gave worse grades to students with Turkish names for identical work. Another found lower grades for students with migration backgrounds in math, despite equal performance on standardized tests.
The consequences are significant. Grades determine access to higher education and career paths. If discrimination shapes grading, it shapes lives.
Interestingly, religious affiliation does not predict perceived unfair grading when other factors are controlled. Turkish origin does. People from Turkey report unfair grading at 43%, compared to 28% for Southeast Europeans.
Job Search: Doors That Stay Closed
Employment is a cornerstone of integration. Yet 38% of people from Muslim-majority countries feel disadvantaged in job searches. Among people without migration backgrounds, only 10% feel this way.
Again, field experiments confirm perceptions. Studies sending identical applications with different names find that Turkish or Arabic names receive fewer interview invitations. One meta-analysis of experiments across OECD countries found widespread discrimination against minorities.
Muslim women with headscarves face particular barriers. 43% report discrimination in job searches, compared to 32% of Muslim women without headscarves. Field experiments show that women wearing headscarves in application photos are invited to interviews far less often.
The study notes that religious affiliation is not typically disclosed in applications. Yet employers may infer religion from names, appearance, or accent. The discrimination happens regardless of actual faith.
Housing: The Hardest Barrier
Housing discrimination is the most severe. 48% of people from Muslim-majority countries report being disadvantaged in housing searches — more than in school or work. Among people without migration backgrounds, 15% feel this way.
Field experiments in Germany confirm high levels of ethnic discrimination in housing. A meta-analysis of 71 experiments across Europe, Canada, and the US found ethnic discrimination in nearly all of them.
Turkish and Middle Eastern origins again show the highest reported discrimination — over 50% in both groups. A journalist experiment found that people with Arabic or Turkish names received far fewer responses to housing inquiries than those with Polish or Italian names.
Housing location affects access to schools, jobs, and social networks. Discrimination in housing thus compounds disadvantage across multiple life areas.
The Headscarf: Visible Faith, Visible Penalty
The study examines the headscarf as a visible marker of Muslim identity. About 38% of Muslim women from Muslim-majority countries wear a headscarf. For women over 66, the figure rises to 62%.
Wearing a headscarf correlates with higher perceived discrimination. 35% of women with headscarves report regular everyday discrimination, compared to 25% without. In job searches, 43% with headscarves report discrimination, compared to 32% without.
The headscarf’s visibility makes Muslim identity apparent. But visibility brings consequences. Studies show that women with headscarves receive less help in public, fewer job interviews, and more negative reactions.
Despite these costs, few women remove their headscarves to avoid disadvantage. Less than 7% have done so. Instead, 19% avoid certain places — shops, restaurants, neighborhoods — to reduce risk. The headscarf is not a choice made lightly. For most, it is a religious obligation they maintain despite the penalties.
The Question of Origin: When Curiosity Hurts
The study also examines a common experience: being asked about one’s foreign origins. 71% of people from Muslim-majority countries have been asked this question. Among those born in Germany, the figure rises to 91%.
Most respondents do not find the question unpleasant. 83% say it did not bother them. Yet 17% find it uncomfortable. Among the full group including those not asked, 12% feel negatively about such questions.
Who feels uncomfortable? People from Turkey and the Middle East more than Southeast Europeans. People who experience more everyday discrimination. People with higher education. And those who feel less connected to Germany.
The question can signal interest or signal exclusion. Context matters — who asks, why, and how. The study suggests that repeated experiences of discrimination amplify sensitivity to such questions.
What Drives Perceived Discrimination?
The study uses regression analysis to identify factors predicting perceived discrimination. Several patterns emerge.
Origin region is consistently significant. People from Turkey, the Middle East, and Arabic-speaking countries report more discrimination than Southeast Europeans across all life areas.
Migration biography matters. People born in Germany and those who arrived before 2015 report more discrimination than recent arrivals. The integration paradox again.
Education plays a role. People with higher education report more discrimination, likely because they have higher expectations and are less willing to accept unequal treatment.
German language skills correlate with more perceived discrimination. Better German means more interaction with majority society — and more opportunities for discrimination.
Connection to Germany reduces perceived discrimination. Those who feel strongly German report less discrimination, though causality may run both ways.
Contact with Germans reduces perceived discrimination in housing searches. Social networks may help navigate barriers.
What This Means for Germany
The study’s findings have implications for policy and society.
First, anti-Muslim prejudice affects more than Muslims. Anyone perceived as Muslim — regardless of actual faith — may face discrimination. This challenges assumptions that religion is the primary driver.
Second, discrimination is not evenly distributed. People from Turkey and the Middle East face the highest barriers. Long-standing communities with deep roots in Germany still experience exclusion.
Third, visible religious symbols carry costs. Women with headscarves face particular disadvantages. Removing the headscarf is not a viable solution for most.
Fourth, discrimination harms integration. Those who feel excluded may withdraw. The integration paradox suggests that success does not guarantee acceptance.
Fifth, contact matters. Positive interactions between groups reduce prejudice. Promoting interethnic and interreligious contact can help.
Sixth, data matters. Understanding who experiences discrimination, where, and why is essential for targeted action.
The study concludes that while most people from Muslim-majority countries do not feel regularly discriminated against, a substantial minority does. Their experiences reflect real patterns of exclusion. Addressing these patterns requires action from policymakers, media, and society as a whole.
Summary
Discrimination in Germany: What 4,538 People from Muslim-Majority Countries Reveal About Everyday Life
A 2023 study by Anja Stichs and Katrin Pfündel from Germany’s Federal Office for Migration and Refugees examines discrimination experiences among people from Muslim-majority countries. The research analyses data from 4,538 respondents from 23 countries plus 582 people without migration backgrounds.
The study covers everyday discrimination, school grading, job searches, and housing searches. Key findings reveal that 67% of people from Muslim-majority countries do not experience regular everyday discrimination. However, 33% report at least one discriminatory situation monthly, compared to 20% of people without migration backgrounds.
In specific life areas, perceived discrimination is higher. 38% report unfair school grading, 38% report job search disadvantage, and 48% report housing search disadvantage. For people without migration backgrounds, these figures are 13%, 10%, and 15% respectively.
A striking finding: religious affiliation does not significantly predict perceived discrimination when other factors are controlled. Origin region matters more. People from Turkey, the Middle East, and Arabic-speaking countries report more discrimination than those from Southeast Europe. This pattern holds across all life areas.
The study suggests people from Muslim-majority countries are often “read” as Muslim regardless of actual religion. Christians from these countries also report discrimination, likely because they are perceived as Muslim.
The integration paradox emerges: people born in Germany and those with longer residence report more discrimination than recent arrivals. Higher expectations of equal treatment make discrimination more painful.
Muslim women with headscarves face particular barriers. 43% report job search discrimination, compared to 32% without headscarves. In housing searches, 54% with headscarves report discrimination, compared to 44% without. Despite costs, few women remove headscarves. Less than 7% have done so to avoid disadvantage.
The study also examines being asked about foreign origins. 71% have experienced this question. Most do not find it unpleasant, but 17% do. People who experience more discrimination and feel less connected to Germany are more likely to feel uncomfortable.
The research identifies factors predicting perceived discrimination: origin region, migration biography, education, German language skills, connection to Germany, and contact with Germans.
Policy implications include recognizing that anti-Muslim prejudice affects more than Muslims, that discrimination is not evenly distributed, and that visible religious symbols carry costs. Contact between groups reduces prejudice. Data is essential for targeted action.
The study concludes that while most do not feel regularly discriminated against, a substantial minority does. Their experiences reflect real patterns of exclusion. Addressing these patterns requires action from policymakers, media, and society.
