From 68 Mosques to Nearly 3,000 in One Generation
When Kazakhstan declared independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, the world’s largest landlocked country had fewer than 70 functioning mosques. Decades of Soviet anti-religious campaigns had systematically dismantled Islamic institutions, leaving a spiritual void. Fast forward to 2024, and the picture looks dramatically different. Nearly 3,000 mosques now dot the Kazakhstani landscape, and approximately 70% of the population identifies as Muslim.
This remarkable transformation lies at the heart of a new academic study published in Frontiers in Political Science. The research offers a comprehensive examination of how Kazakhstan has managed its Islamic revival while maintaining a firm commitment to secular governance. Their findings reveal a nation walking a tightrope between religious freedom and national security, tradition and modernity, cultural identity and global influences.
A Journey Through a Thousand Years of Islamic History
Islam first arrived in the territory of modern Kazakhstan during the eighth and ninth centuries CE, following Arab expansion into Central Asia. The pivotal Battle of Talas in 751 CE marked a turning point, with Turkic peoples gradually embracing the new faith. By the tenth century, the ancestors of modern Kazakhs began converting to Islam, coinciding with the formation of Muslim states such as the Karakhanids and the Seljuks.
The religion flourished during the Timurid period in the late fourteenth century, when theological centers established Hanafi jurisprudence—a school of Islamic law that remains dominant in Kazakhstan today. The construction of the magnificent mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi in southern Kazakhstan during this period stands as a testament to Islam’s deep roots in the region.
However, the Russian imperial period brought significant challenges. Authorities actively promoted Christianity among nomadic populations, viewing Islam as a potential threat to colonial policy. Large-scale Russian resettlement programs divided the region ethnically, with northern areas becoming predominantly Slavic while southern regions remained more heavily Muslim.
The Soviet Era: Seven Decades of Suppression
The Soviet period marked the most intensive phase of religious suppression. Although early policies briefly allowed some religious freedom during the New Economic Policy (NEP) of the 1920s, the late 1920s ushered in systematic anti-religious campaigns that lasted until 1941. These efforts dramatically curtailed religious freedoms, closing mosques and madrasahs across the region.
Nevertheless, the study reveals that these policies never fully achieved their goals. Research conducted in Kazakhstan during the late 1980s found that depending on the region, between 20% and 80% of the population identified as believers or sympathized with religion. This persistence of Islamic identity, despite systematic suppression, demonstrates the deep cultural embedding of religious practice.
Demographic Surge: Islam’s Post-Independence Resurgence
The 1999 census did not include questions about religion, reflecting the lingering secular legacy of Soviet governance. However, subsequent censuses provided clear evidence of dramatic change. In 2009, 70.2% of Kazakhstan’s population identified as Muslim. By 2021, this figure stood at 69.3%, with the slight percentage decrease reflecting overall population growth rather than any decline in Muslim numbers.
More revealing are the changes in religious observance. According to World Values Survey data, the proportion of Kazakhstanis who consider religion “very important” jumped from 21.5% in 2011 to 28.7% in 2018. Even more dramatic, the percentage of people who rarely participate in religious ceremonies (excluding weddings and funerals) plummeted from 37% in 2011 to just 11.1% in 2018.
Religious Affiliation in Kazakhstan (2009 vs. 2021)
| Year | Total Population | Muslim Population | Christian Population | Percentage Muslim |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2009 | 16,009,597 | 11,239,176 | 4,214,232 | 70.2% |
| 2021 | 19,186,015 | 13,297,775 | 3,297,550 | 69.3% |
Source: Compiled from Bureau of National Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan data
Institutional Explosion: Building a Religious Infrastructure
The institutional growth accompanying this religious revival has been nothing short of extraordinary. When Kazakhstan gained independence, it had fewer than 70 mosques remaining from the Soviet era. By 2021, that number had risen to at least 2,713 registered mosques under the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Kazakhstan (SAMK). An additional 88 mosques opened in 2023 alone, bringing the total to approximately 2,854.
Religious educational institutions have experienced similar expansion. As of mid-2024, Kazakhstan hosted 14 religious educational institutions, enrolling over 5,500 students. Twelve of these institutions focus on Islamic teachings, including Nur-Mubarak University, nine madrasah-colleges, and specialized Islamic institutes.
The Husamuddin as-Syganaki Islamic Institute, inaugurated in fall 2022 in Astana, represents the most recent addition. According to SAMK Chairman N.T. Otpenov, the institute aims to enhance imams’ knowledge, teach Arabic, and develop their ability to explain religious matters. This focus on domestic religious education reflects the government’s desire to provide quality spiritual education within Kazakhstan rather than sending students abroad.
Institutional Growth of Islam in Kazakhstan (Key Indicators)
| Indicator | Independence (1991) | 2021 | 2024 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mosques | ~68 | 2,713+ | ~2,854 |
| Registered Islamic Organizations | N/A | 2,685 | 2,832 |
| Religious Educational Institutions | Minimal | N/A | 14 (12 Islamic-focused) |
| Students in Religious Education | N/A | N/A | 5,500+ |
Sources: Compiled from Erbas (2021), Muftyat.kz (2021), Ministry of Religious Affairs (2024a,b), and Azan.kz (2024)
The Regulatory Framework: Balancing Secularism and Faith
Kazakhstan’s approach to religious governance rests on a delicate balance. The constitution declares the state secular and separated from religion, with all citizens equal before the law regardless of their faith. However, the government also recognizes Islam’s historical and cultural significance, creating a distinctive model of state-religious relations.
The primary legislative framework, the 2011 Law on Religious Activity and Religious Associations, emerged in response to security concerns. A series of terrorist attacks in 2011 in the Aktobe region, Atyrau, Taraz, and a village in Almaty region prompted legislative amendments restricting freedom of conscience in the name of countering extremism and terrorism. These measures introduced strict registration requirements and limitations on religious expression in public spaces.
The Security Dimension: Combating Extremism While Maintaining Control
Since at least 2017, Kazakhstan has officially recognized Salafism as a significant threat to national security. A SAMK spokesperson stated in 2011 that Salafism should be banned due to its dangerous nature. Public opinion data from Alash.Online revealed that nearly 400 people supported a legislative ban on Salafism, while only 22 opposed it.
The government has also banned 22 religious organizations under laws combating extremism, including groups like Hizb ut-Tahrir and the Islamic State. However, in a notable shift toward diplomatic pragmatism, Kazakhstan removed the Taliban from its banned organizations list in June 2024 as part of efforts to establish trade and economic ties with Afghanistan’s new government.
The Director of the Institute for Geopolitical Research, A. Izabirov, noted in 2023 that the number and influence of adherents of non-traditional religious movements have significantly decreased in recent years. This decline reflects the government’s success in reducing terrorist attacks, which peaked between 2011 and 2016.
Cultural Tensions: The Hijab Controversy
One of the most visible cultural tensions concerns Islamic dress codes. The wearing of hijabs, niqabs, and burqas has become increasingly common, but the government views these practices as foreign to Kazakhstan’s cultural traditions. This tension exploded into public view in October 2023 when Kazakhstan banned students and teachers from wearing hijabs in schools.
President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev emphasized that schools are educational institutions where knowledge and skills take priority, while religion remains a personal matter. During the March 2024 National Kurultai, Tokayev elaborated that the increasing number of people wearing black robes contradicts Kazakh norms and traditions, reflecting foreign influences rooted in religious fanaticism.
Public confusion followed in September 2024 when media outlets claimed that Kazakhstan’s Supreme Court had ruled the hijab ban unlawful. However, the court later refuted this report, confirming that the ban remained in effect.
Generational Shifts: A Growing Islamic Identity
The study documents significant generational changes in religious identification. In 2011, 57.9% of those under 29 identified as Muslim. By 2018, this figure rose to 65.9%. For those aged 30-49, Muslim identification increased from 54.6% to 71.2%, and for those 50 and older, from 35.4% to 63.4%. This rise across all age groups demonstrates that Islamic identity is strengthening nationwide, not just among the young.
Conversely, the proportion of Orthodox Christians decreased significantly across all age groups. Among those under 29, the percentage of individuals not affiliating with any religion fell from 19.8% in 2011 to just 8.1% in 2018, indicating a sharp decline in secular identification among younger generations.
Educational Infrastructure: Nurturing a New Generation of Religious Leaders
The institutional development of Islamic education represents a cornerstone of Kazakhstan’s approach to managing religious revival. Nur-Mubarak University, the flagship Islamic educational institution, reported impressive employment rates: 83% for undergraduate students, 90% for master’s students, and 99% for doctoral students. Between 2004 and 2020, more than 1,000 graduates joined SAMK, with others entering government institutions, education, or pursuing further studies.
This focus on domestic religious education serves multiple purposes. It provides quality spiritual education within Kazakhstan, reducing the need for students to study abroad where they might be exposed to foreign influences. It also creates a cadre of religious leaders trained in the “official” interpretation of Islam that aligns with government interests.
The Distinctive Kazakhstani Model: A Hybrid Approach
The study characterizes Kazakhstan’s approach as a distinctive model of state-religious relations that successfully combines secular governance with recognition of Islam’s historical significance. This model reflects what one researcher describes as “parallelization of secularization and strong Islamic presence.”
According to research by the Stockholm-based Institute for Security and Development Policy, Kazakhstan’s secular governance model aligns more closely with skepticism and isolationism as seen in Turkey or France, rather than the neutrality exemplified by the United States. The government supports and promotes traditional religious communities while opposing the spread of non-traditional doctrines, reflecting a “dominant religion” model with specific nuances.
Future Trajectory: Navigating Global Trends and Local Realities
The study identifies several areas requiring continued attention. The long-term sustainability of the current secular-religious balance remains uncertain, particularly as global Islamic revival trends intersect with local Kazakhstani political and cultural dynamics. The effectiveness of current regulatory approaches in preventing religious extremism while maintaining religious freedom deserves continued scholarly attention.
The role of educational institutions in shaping religious discourse and practice will likely become increasingly important as the number of students in religious education continues to grow. Additionally, the government’s approach to non-traditional movements and religious dress codes will continue to evolve in response to both domestic pressures and international perspectives.
Conclusion: A Delicate Balance
Kazakhstan’s journey from Soviet-era suppression to post-independence religious revival offers important insights into religious governance in post-communist societies. The remarkable persistence of Islamic identity through periods of systematic suppression, followed by rapid revival under conditions of political liberalization, demonstrates both the resilience of religious culture and the importance of institutional frameworks in facilitating religious expression.
The contemporary challenge of balancing secular governance with the preferences of a majority Muslim population reflects broader tensions between democratic governance and religious identity in diverse societies. Kazakhstan’s distinctive model of state-religious relations, with its emphasis on supporting traditional practices while restricting what it considers foreign influences, offers a unique case study for other nations navigating similar tensions.
As the study concludes, Kazakhstan has developed a successful combination of secular governance with recognition of Islam’s historical significance in the country’s development. Whether this balance proves sustainable over the long term remains to be seen, but for now, the world’s largest landlocked country continues to walk its tightrope between tradition and modernity, faith and secularism, cultural identity and global integration.
Reference: Zhandossova S, Seitakhmetova N and Nurov M (2025) Religious policy of Kazakhstan: mechanisms for managing the Islamic environment amid post-soviet transformation. Front. Polit. Sci. 7:1606705. doi: 10.3389/fpos.2025.1606705
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